Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration, Fitzmaurice C, Allen C, Barber RM, Barregard L, Bhutta ZA, Brenner H, et al. Global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for 32 cancer groups, 1990 to 2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. JAMA Oncol. 2017;3:524–48. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.5688
Simon H (ed). The Harvard Medical School Guide to Men’s Health: Lessons from the Harvard Men’s Health Studies. New York: The Free Press and colophon are registered trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc; 2004.
Pourmand G, Salem S, Mehrsai A, Lotfi M, Amirzargar MA, Mazdak H, et al. The risk factors of prostate cancer: a multicentric case-control study in Iran. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2007;8:422–8.
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68:394–424. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21492
Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, et al. Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021;71:209–49. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21660
Pinsky PF, Prorok PC, Yu K, Kramer BS, Black A, Gohagan JK, et al. Extended mortality results for prostate cancer screening in the PLCO trial with median follow-up of 15 years. Cancer. 2017;123:592–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.30474
Siegel R, Ma J, Zou Z, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin. 2014;64:9–29. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21208
Nebert DW, McKinnon RA, Puga A. Human drug-metabolizing enzyme polymorphisms: effects on risk of toxicity and cancer. DNA Cell Biol. 1996;15:273–80. https://doi.org/10.1089/dna.1996.15.273
Hsing AW, Sakoda LC, Chua S Jr. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and prostate cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:s843–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/86.3.843S. Sep
Jackson MD, Walker SP, Simpson-Smith CM, Lindsay CM, Smith G, McFarlane-Anderson N, et al. Associations of whole-blood fatty acids and dietary intakes with prostate cancer in Jamaica. Cancer Causes Control. 2012;23:23–33.
Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin. 2005;55:74–108. https://doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.55.2.74
Hsing AW, Chokkalingam AP. Prostate cancer epidemiology. Front Biosci. 2006;11:1388–413. https://doi.org/10.2741/1891
Mallick S, Blanchet P, Multigner L. Prostate cancer incidence in guadeloupe, a French Caribbean archipelago. Eur Urol. 2005;47:769–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2005.02.020
Pollak M. Metformin and other biguanides in oncology: advancing the research agenda. Cancer Prev Res. 2010;3:1060–5. https://doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0175
Margel D, Urbach D, Lipscombe LL, Bell CM, Kulkarni G, Austin PC, et al. Association between metformin use and risk of prostate cancer and its grade. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105:1123–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djt170
Ben Sahra I, Laurent K, Loubat A, Giorgetti-Peraldi S, Colosetti P, Auberger P, et al. The antidiabetic drug metformin exerts an antitumoral effect in vitro and in vivo through a decrease of cyclin D1 level. Oncogene. 2008;27:3576–86. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1211024
Prabhakaran S, Thirumal D, Gimbun J, Ranganathan B. Metformin-A panacea pharmaceutical agent through convergence revolution initiative. J Nat Rem. 2018;17:69–79. https://doi.org/10.18311/jnr/2017/17938
Huang X, Wullschleger S, Shpiro N, McGuire VA, Sakamoto K, Woods YL, et al. Important role of the LKB1-AMPK pathway in suppressing tumorigenesis in PTEN-deficient mice. Biochem J. 2008;412:211–21. https://doi.org/10.1042/BJ20080557
Niehr F, von Euw E, Attar N, Guo D, Matsunaga D, Sazegar H, et al. Combination therapy with vemurafenib (PLX4032/RG7204) and metformin in melanoma cell lines with distinct driver mutations. J Transl Med. 2011;9:76 https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5876-9-76
Rozengurt E, Sinnett-Smith J, Kisfalvi K. Crosstalk between insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1 receptors and G protein-coupled receptor signaling systems: a novel target for the antidiabetic drug metformin in pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16:2505–11. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-09-2229
Hasanvand A. Antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of metformin; a new look to an old drug. J Ren Endocrinol. 2018;4:e02.22.
Unterberger CJ, Maklakova VI, Lazar M, Arneson PD, Mcilwain SJ, Tsourkas PK, et al. GH Action in Prostate Cancer Cells Promotes Proliferation, Limits Apoptosis, and Regulates Cancer-related Gene Expression. Endocrinology. 2022;163:bqac031. https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqac031
Mallik R, Chowdhury TA. Metformin in cancer. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2018;143:409–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2018.05.023
Clements A, Gao B, Yeap SHO, Wong MKY, Ali SS, Gurney H. Metformin in prostate cancer: two for the price of one. Ann Oncol. 2011;22:2556–60. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdr037
Morales DR, Morris AD. Metformin in cancer treatment and prevention. Annu Rev Med. 2015;66:17–29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-062613-093128
Baguley BJ, Bolam KA, Wright ORL, Skinner TL. The effect of nutrition therapy and exercise on cancer-related fatigue and quality of life in men with prostate cancer: a systematic review. Nutrients. 2017;9:1003 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9091003
Venkateswaran V, Haddad AQ, Fleshner NE, Fan R, Sugar LM, Nam R, et al. Association of diet-induced hyperinsulinemia with accelerated growth of prostate cancer (LNCaP) xenografts. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:1793–800. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djm231.
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, PRISMA G. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ. 2020;339:b2535 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2535
Higgins JP, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, Jüni P, Moher D, Oxman AD, et al. The cochrane collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ. 2011;343:d5928 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d5928.
Stang A. Critical evaluation of the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for the assessment of the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Eur J Epidemiol. 2010;25:603–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-010-9491-z
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Kunz R, Falck-Ytter Y, Alonso-Coello P, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336:924–6. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39489.470347.AD.
Stare J, Maucort-Boulch D. Odds ratio, hazard ratio and relative risk. Metodol Zv. 1998;13:59–67.
BMJ Best Practice (n.d.) A glossary of EBM terms. https://bestpractice.bmj.com/info/us/toolkit/ebm-tools/a-glossary-of-ebm-terms/. Accessed 22 July 2023.
Ronksley PE, Brien SE, Turner BJ, Mukamal KJ, Ghali WA. Association of alcohol consumption with selected cardiovascular disease outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011;342:d671 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d671.
Zhang JYK. What’ s the Relative Risk? A method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes. JAMA. 1998;280:1690–91. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.19.1690
Tufanaru C, Munn Z, Stephenson M, Aromataris E. Fixed or random effects meta-analysis? Common methodological issues in systematic reviews of effectiveness. Int J Evid Based Health. 2015;13:196–207. https://doi.org/10.1097/XEB.0000000000000065
Harrell FE Jr, Lee KL, Pollock BG. Regression models in clinical studies: determining relationships between predictors and response. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1988;80:1198–202. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/80.15.1198
Haidich AB. Meta-analysis in medical research. Hippokratia. 2010;14:29–37.
Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315:629–34. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
Azoulay L, Dell’Aniello S, Gagnon B, Pollak M, Suissa S. Metformin and the incidence of prostate cancer in patients with type 2 diabetes. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2011;20:337–44. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-10-0940
But A, Wang H, Männistö S, Pukkala E, Haukka J. Assessing the effect of treatment duration on the association between anti-diabetic medication and cancer risk. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e113162 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113162
Chen CB, Eurich DT, Majumdar SR, Johnson JA. Metformin and the risk of prostate cancer across racial/ethnic groups: a population-based cohort study. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2017;20:122–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/pcan.2016.65
Currie CJ, Poole CD, Gale EA. The influence of glucose-lowering therapies on cancer risk in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2009;52:1766–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-009-1440-6
Ferrara A, Lewis JD, Quesenberry CP Jr, Peng T, Strom BL, Van Den Eeden SK, et al. Cohort study of pioglitazone and cancer incidence in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:923–9. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1067
Freedman LS, Agay N, Farmer R, Murad H, Olmer L, Dankner R. Metformin treatment among men with diabetes and the risk of prostate cancer: a population-based historical cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2022;191:626–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab287
Geraldine N, Marc A, Carla T, Chantal M, Stefaan B, Welcome W, et al. Relation between diabetes, metformin treatment and the occurrence of malignancies in a Belgian primary care setting. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2012;97:331–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2012.02.002
Goldberg H, Mohsin FK, Berlin A, Chandrasekar T, Wallis CJD, Klaassen Z, et al. The suggested chemopreventive association of metformin with prostate cancer in diabetic patients. Urol Oncol. 2021;39:191.e17–191.e24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2020.08.032
Häggström C, Van Hemelrijck M, Zethelius B, Robinson D, Grundmark B, Holmberg L, et al. Prospective study of Type 2 diabetes mellitus, anti-diabetic drugs and risk of prostate cancer. Int J Cancer. 2017;140:611–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.30480
Haring A, Murtola TJ, Talala K, Taari K, Tammela TL, Auvinen A. Antidiabetic drug use and prostate cancer risk in the Finnish randomized study of screening for prostate cancer. Scand J Urol. 2017;51:5–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681805.2016.1271353
Jo JK, Song HK, Heo Y, Kim MJ, Kim YJ. Risk analysis of metformin use in prostate cancer: a national population-based study. Aging Male. 2023;26:2156497 https://doi.org/10.1080/13685538.2022.2156497
Kincius M, Patasius A, Linkeviciute-Ulinskiene D, Zabuliene L, Smailyte G. Reduced risk of prostate cancer in a cohort of Lithuanian diabetes mellitus patients. Aging Male. 2020;23:1333–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13685538.2020.1766013
Koo HY, Jeong SM, Cho MH, Chun S, Shin DW, Park J. Population-wide impacts of aspirin, statins, and metformin use on prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Sci Rep. 2021;11:16171 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95764-3
Kowall B, Stang A, Rathmann W, Kostev K. No reduced risk of overall, colorectal, lung, breast, and prostate cancer with metformin therapy in diabetic patients: database analyses from Germany and the UK. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2015;24:865–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.3823
Kuo YJ, Sung FC, Hsieh PF, Chang HP, Wu KL, Wu HC. Metformin reduces prostate cancer risk among men with benign prostatic hyperplasia: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Cancer Med. 2019;8:2514–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/cam4.2025
Lopez DS, Malagaris I, Polychronopoulou E, Tsilidis KK, Milani SA, Kristen Peek M, et al. Metformin and testosterone replacement therapy inversely associated with hormone-associated cancers (prostate, colorectal and male breast cancers) among older White and Black men. Clin Endocrinol. 2022;97:792–803. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.14803
Lehman DM, Lorenzo C, Hernandez J, Wang CP. Statin use as a moderator of metformin effect on risk for prostate cancer among type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2012;35:1002–7. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1829
Morden NE, Liu SK, Smith J, Mackenzie TA, Skinner J, Korc M. Further exploration of the relationship between insulin glargine and incident cancer: a retrospective cohort study of older Medicare patients. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:1965–71. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-0699
Murtola TJ, Tammela TL, Lahtela J, Auvinen A. Antidiabetic medication and prostate cancer risk: a population-based case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168:925–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn190
Nair-Shalliker V, Bang A, Egger S, Yu XQ, Chiam K, Steinberg J, et al. Family history, obesity, urological factors and diabetic medications and their associations with risk of prostate cancer diagnosis in a large prospective study. Br J Cancer. 2022;127:735–46. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41416-022-01827-1
Nordström T, Clements M, Karlsson R, Adolfsson J, Grönberg H. The risk of prostate cancer for men on aspirin, statin or antidiabetic medications. Eur J Cancer. 2015;51:725–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2015.02.003
Onitilo AA, Stankowski RV, Berg RL, Engel JM, Glurich I, Williams GM, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus, glycemic control, and cancer risk. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2014;23:134–40. https://doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0b013e3283656394
Preston MA, Riis AH, Ehrenstein V, Breau RH, Batista JL, Olumi AF, et al. Metformin use and prostate cancer risk. Eur Urol. 2014;66:1012–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2014.04.027
Qiu H, Rhoads GG, Berlin JA, Marcella SW, Demissie K. Initial metformin or sulphonylurea exposure and cancer occurrence among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2013;15:349–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.12036
Raval AD, Mattes MD, Madhavan S, Pan X, Wei W, Sambamoorthi U. Association between metformin use and cancer stage at diagnosis among elderly medicare beneficiaries with preexisting type 2 diabetes mellitus and incident prostate cancer. J Diabetes Res. 2016;2016:2656814 https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2656814
Ruiter R, Visser LE, van Herk-Sukel MP, Coebergh JW, Haak HR, Geelhoed-Duijvestijn PH, et al. Lower risk of cancer in patients on metformin in comparison with those on sulfonylurea derivatives: results from a large population-based follow-up study. Diabetes Care. 2012;35:119–24. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-0857
Tseng CH. Diabetes and risk of prostate cancer: a study using the National Health Insurance. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:616–21. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1640
Tseng CH. Metformin significantly reduces incident prostate cancer risk in Taiwanese men with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Eur J Cancer. 2014;50:2831–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2014.08.007
Tsilidis KK, Capothanassi D, Allen NE, Rizos EC, Lopez DS, van Veldhoven K, et al. Metformin does not affect cancer risk: a cohort study in the U.K. Clinical Practice Research Datalink analyzed like an intention-to-treat trial. Diabetes Care. 2014;37:2522–32. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-0584
van Staa TP, Patel D, Gallagher AM, de Bruin ML. Glucose-lowering agents and the patterns of risk for cancer: a study with the General Practice Research Database and secondary care data. Diabetologia. 2012;55:654–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-011-2390-3
Vicentini M, Ballotari P, Giorgi Rossi P, Venturelli F, Sacchettini C, Greci M, et al. Effect of different glucose-lowering therapies on cancer incidence in type 2 diabetes: an observational population-based study. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2018;143:398–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2018.04.036
Wang CP, Lehman DM, Lam YF, Kuhn JG, Mahalingam D, Weitman S, et al. Metformin for reducing racial/ethnic difference in prostate cancer incidence for men with type II diabetes. Cancer Prev Res. 2016;9:779–87. https://doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-15-0425
Wright JL, Stanford JL. Metformin use and prostate cancer in Caucasian men: results from a population-based case-control study. Cancer Causes Control. 2009;20:1617–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-009-9407-y.
Allott EH, Abern MR, Gerber L, Keto CJ, Aronson WJ, Terris MK, et al. Metformin does not affect risk of biochemical recurrence following radical prostatectomy: results from the SEARCH database. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2013;16:391–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/pcan.2013.48
Aminsharifi A, Howard LE, Amling CL, Aronson WJ, Cooperberg MR, Kane CJ, et al. Statins are associated with increased biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy in diabetic men but no association was seen in men also taking metformin: results from the SEARCH database. Clin Genitourin Cancer. 2019;17:e140–e149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clgc.2018.09.020
Kaushik D, Karnes RJ, Eisenberg MS, Rangel LJ, Carlson RE, Bergstralh EJ. Effect of metformin on prostate cancer outcomes after radical prostatectomy. Urol Oncol. 2014;32:43.e1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2013.05.005
Patel T, Hruby G, Badani K, Abate-Shen C, McKiernan JM. Clinical outcomes after radical prostatectomy in diabetic patients treated with metformin. Urology. 2010;76:1240–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2010.03.059
Rieken M, Kluth LA, Xylinas E, Fajkovic H, Becker A, Karakiewicz PI, et al. Association of diabetes mellitus and metformin use with biochemical recurrence in patients treated with radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer. World J Urol. 2014;32:999–1005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-013-1171-7
Currie CJ, Poole CD, Jenkins-Jones S, Gale EA, Johnson JA, Morgan CL. Mortality after incident cancer in people with and without type 2 diabetes: impact of metformin on survival. Diabetes Care. 2012;35:299–304. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1313. Feb
Margel D, Urbach DR, Lipscombe LL, Bell CM, Kulkarni G, Austin PC, et al. Metformin use and all-cause and prostate cancer-specific mortality among men with diabetes. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:3069–75. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2012.46.7043
Bashraheel SS, Kheraldine H, Khalaf S, Moustafa AA. Metformin and HER2-positive breast cancer: mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Biomed Pharmacother. 2023;162:114676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114676
Takhwifa F, Aninditha T, Setiawan H, Sauriasari R. The potential of metformin as an antineoplastic in brain tumors: a systematic review. Heliyon. 2021;7:e06558 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06558
Cerezo M, Tomic T, Ballotti R, Rocchi S. Is it time to test biguanide metformin in the treatment of melanoma? Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2015;28:8–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcmr.12267
Deng D, Yang Y, Tang X, Skrip L, Qiu J, Wang Y, et al. Association between metformin therapy and incidence, recurrence and mortality of prostate cancer: evidence from a meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2015;31:595–602. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.2645
He K, Hu H, Ye S, Wang H, Cui R, Yi L. The effect of metformin therapy on incidence and prognosis in prostate cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2019;9:2218 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-38285-w
Zakikhani M, Dowling RJ, Sonenberg N, Pollak MN. The effects of adiponectin and metformin on prostate and colon neoplasia involve activation of AMP-activated protein kinase. Cancer Prev Res. 2008;1:369–75. https://doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-08-0081
Buzzai M, Jones RG, Amaravadi RK, Lum JJ, DeBerardinis RJ, Zhao F, et al. Systemic treatment with the antidiabetic drug metformin selectively impairs p53-deficient tumor cell growth. Cancer Res. 2007;67:6745–52. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-4447
Zhuang Y, Miskimins WK. Cell cycle arrest in metformin treated breast cancer cells involves activation of AMPK, downregulation of cyclin D1, and requires p27Kip1 or p21Cip1. J Mol Signal. 2008;3:18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-2187-3-18
Pollak M. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor signalling in neoplasia. Nat Rev Cancer. 2008;8:915–28. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc2536.
Shukla A, Grisouard J, Ehemann V, Hermani A, Enzmann H, Mayer D. Analysis of signaling pathways related to cell proliferation stimulated by insulin analogs in human mammary epithelial cell lines. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2009;16:429–41. https://doi.org/10.1677/ERC-08-0240
Pollak MN, Schernhammer ES, Hankinson SE. Insulin-like growth factors and neoplasia. Nat Rev Cancer. 2004;4:505–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1387
Liu X, Hemminki K, Försti A, Sundquist K, Sundquist J, Ji J. Cancer risk in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and their relatives. Int J Cancer. 2015;137:903–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.29440
Hu MB, Liu SH, Jiang HW, Bai PD, Ding Q. Obesity affects the biopsy-mediated detection of prostate cancer, particularly high-grade prostate cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 29,464 patients. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e106677 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106677
Zhang F, Yang Y, Skrip L, Hu D, Wang Y, Wong C, et al. Diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer: an updated meta-analysis based on 12 case-control and 25 cohort studies. Acta Diabetol. 2012;49:S235–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-012-0439-5
Schäfer G. Site-specific uncoupling and inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation by biguanides. II. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1969;172:334–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-2728(69)90077-2
Amengual-Cladera E, Morla-Barcelo PM, Morán-Costoya A, Sastre-Serra J, Pons DG, Valle A, et al. Metformin: from diabetes to cancer-unveiling molecular mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Biology. 2024;13:302 https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13050302
Li XN, Bu HM, Ma XH, Lu S, Zhao S, Cui YL, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues inhibit proliferation and increase apoptosis of human prostate cancer cells in vitro. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2017;125:91–97. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-112368
Corona G, Monami M, Rastrelli G, Aversa A, Sforza A, Lenzi A, et al. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and testosterone: a meta-analysis study. Int J Androl. 2011;34:528–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2605.2010.01117.x
Jang A, Lanka SM, Huang M, Casado CV, Caputo SA, Sweeney PL, et al. Comparison of circulating tumor DNA between African American and Caucasian patients with metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer post-abiraterone and/or enzalutamide. Prostate. 2023;83:1028–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.24544
Shibata A, Whittemore AS. Genetic predisposition to prostate cancer: possible explanations for ethnic differences in risk. Prostate 1997;32:65–72.
Li J, Mercer E, Gou X, Lu YJ. Ethnical disparities of prostate cancer predisposition: genetic polymorphisms in androgen-related genes. Am J Cancer Res. 2013;3:127–51.